Gerontology and Social Exchange Theory Essay

presentationThe fundamental biological problem that either theories of develop seek to beg off was stated very elegantly in 1957 by Williams when he wrote, It is and then remarkable that after a seemingly miraculous feat of morphogenesis, a complex metazoan should be unable to perform the much simpler task of precisely maintaining what is already formed. The difficulty in attempting to dedicate an taking into custody of maturement is that it is non a single physiological process. It is multifaceted and hierarchical in its observation with subtle changes occurring simultaneously at the molecular, cellular, tissue and organ levels. The variety of characterizes some species, particularly humans, and the complexity of environmental interactions results in an enormous phe nonypic disagreement being associated with aging. This variability is frequently confounded by the symptoms of underlying pathology and incessantly increases amid one-on-ones with aging.First Transformatio n of TheoryThe beginning of cordial gerontology began as general perspectives on aging rather than as existing scientific theories. Prior to 1961, kindly gerontology attempted to explain how separates set to aging from role and performance perspectives. Growing grey-headed was seen as an essential process that led to the using of problems an individual insured over succession. It wasnt until 1961, with the development of disengold agement possibility, that there was an actual opening being used as a basis for scientific interrogation. A basic assumption of the theory was that all societies bemuse to take away power from an aging population to a younger one. Disengagement attempted to explain this process of power transfer and complimented gerotrancendence, a nonher theory from what is considered to be the first transformation of theory. Gerotrancendence follows the beliefs of Jung and Erikson that as a person ages, they withdraw from the extraneous world to an internal world focused on spirituality, wisdom, self-acceptance and purpose. Both disengagement and gerotrancendence theories attempted to explain what fond gerontologists supposition aging should be. They did not try to develop a universal theory to explain the variety of experiences of batch as they age (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011).In the campaign of disengagement, this withdrawal from power wasbelieved to be a universal experience that transcended sexuality and culture. Death was inevitable decline in abilities was probably. It was only natural that others would start lowered expectations for aging individuals. In the case of gerotrancendence, this withdrawal resulted from an individual not achieving ego identity. An individual would either attain this ego identity, a unconditional regard for their life sentence, or withdraw as a symptom of despondency (Andrus gerontology Center University of Southern California, 2005) A third theory of the time period was continuity theory, which po stulated that individuals tend to maintain a logical conventionality of behavior as they age, substituting equal types of roles for lost ones and keeping usual ways of adapting to the environment (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 319).Individual satisfaction was dependent on how consistent a person was able to maintain the equal patterns of behavior. Though attempting to argufy previous theories based on activity and disengagement perspectives, it also did not address any personality differences among aging individuals, nor did it address any constitution-making, affectionate, diachronic or cultural turns on the experience of aging (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011). It is interesting to spirit that though continuity theory attempted to challenge the activity theory, it was correspondent to the activity perspective that that was a positive relationship in the midst of genial roles and life satisfaction (Howe, 1987).Alternative Theoretical PerspectivesAlternative theories based on a sy mbolic interaction perspective were real to address external issues affecting aging while also attempting to connect the disparate theories of activity and disengagement. Symbolic interaction perspective is based on the premise that as an individual interacts with his environment his experiences of aging be shaped by these interactions. deuce-ace of these alternative theories be age stratification theory, accessible exchange theory, and the political economy of aging. There are many similarities and differences between these theories. fester stratification and political economy theories are based on the belief that as people age, the differences in their aging experience is signififannytly influenced by stratification. Age stratification acknowledges the differences experienced by those sharing a similar history. Similarities among life compensatets and societal changes experienced by these historicalcohorts affect these individuals in similar ways.In contrast, political ec onomy theory rejects all previous theories and posits that differences between individual experiences of aging are determined by social class. socioeconomic and political factors determine the disparity between different groups in an aging population. neighborly exchange theory is based on an economic cost-benefit simulation of social interaction. It could be said that there is a similarity between social exchange and political economy in that disparities experienced are social in nature. Whereas in social exchange theory, an individual is suasion to be able to influence or change ones environment as one adapts, political economy believes that inequalities are fortify into the political system. Political economy critiques the current system which lulls the individual into accept one has to adapt to circumstances, rather than changing societys geomorphologic inequalities.Of the alternative theories, social exchange is the only one to address the influence of culture on the exper ience of aging. amicable exchange theory believes that people interact with those whom they believe the rewards outweigh the costs of the relationship (Taylor, Peplau, & Sears, 2006). Though social exchange theory acknowledges that though a person may no longer withstand the same economic value when honest-to-god, that the older individual possesses other non-materialistic assets such as wisdom, love, and time for service. As our society modernized, these assets have been overlooked by a culture that now places richness on efficiency and productivity (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011).The Second TransformationThe second transformation was developed in the early 1980s. This transformation includes the following draw closees social phenomenology, social constructivism, and social constructionism. Both of which discuss the influence of social perceptions, rather than actual facts. Social phenomenology is an interpretative come out to an individuals social life on a day to day basis. The pur pose is to gain a crack understanding of the aging process and how it is influenced by social definitions and social structures. This approach can be a very helpful guide when gaining understanding of an individuals social life, depending on how the information is obtained. The outcomes for this approach go forth be solely based on the interpretations of the individual (s) obtaining this information. Noteveryone has the same social definition and or social structures, which could result in numerous interpretations (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). Social Constructionism and Social Constructivism are both phenomenological approaches that focus on social phenomena development, but are very different. Social constructionism is the sociological perspective and focuses on the social con text editions and structural development.This approach would view how an individual structures their life which shapes their old age experiences. Social constructivism is interpreting the meaning of an individual s social context, psychologically. From this approach the researchers want to know more information on why a person chooses a specific context and how an individual does steady down a specific social context (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). Critical Theory and libber Perspectives are also influenced by phenomenology. Critical theory refers to the biomedical form of aging, but focuses on structural and institution factors. This theory is suggesting that those (older people) participating in research studies should be allowed to come up with the questions they are requested to answer. For instance, research conducted regarding retirement would recommend a series of questions complied by other retirees (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). The womens liberationist Theory concludes that age related research outcomes involve inequalities against women.This theory suggests that women havent been included in research studies as they should be. Its even been stated that men have been favored over women. Due t o these inequalities all other theories of aging are insufficient. These inequalities also include gender with race, social class, sexual orientation, and disabilities, all of which arent discussed as much as they should be (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). These theories are all based on assumptions, rather than actual facts. The text states, To positivist, phenomenological theories may seem impossible to test and closer to assumptions about meanings than propositions that can be proved or disprove (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 326).Society has a massive encounter on our perceptions of life, which arent consistent and change over time. A huge factor of perception is that its not necessarily reality and lacks proved facts. If the information being evaluated isnt consistent, lacks factual information, and is based on assumptions it shouldnt be used for practice, but could be a beneficial channelise tool (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011).Postmodernist TheoryPostmodernist theory represents a crucial brea k with modernity or a positivist scientific approach to an objective truth (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 331). Postmodernism focuses on how our world appears today, rather than focusing on how an individual wishes for the world to be seen. Postmodernist theory reviews the whole of a persons experiences during their life time and examines the automobile trunk not from a biological standpoint, but rather by everyday social and cultural practices built overtime to construct the identity of the individual. The individual will physically change overtime, but their essential identity develops based on achievements and time to come goals. An electron orbit that continues to develop in postmodernist theory focuses on biomedical technology that can provide options for reconstructing failing body parts to indisposed the process of aging. Postmodernist and social constructivist theories share the link of knowledge as a socially constructed element and each individuals social life events create who they are. This diversity of perspectives alerts social gerontologists to be concerned with the connections between scientific inquiry and the social milieu at particular prestigious points in time (Putney, Alley, & Bengston, 2005, p. 95).Both areas focus on an individuals construct based on a cultural fabric of customs, traditions, and beliefs. Social constructionism and postmodernist take into account how individual experiences alter an individuals aging process allowing the person to develop their own reality. Each area stresses the importance of the individuals social framework to help assert their self-worth as they age. In contrast to political economy of aging, postmodernists focus on the well-being of an individual not from a social class or political standing, but from their life experiences. Structural factors of gender, sexual orientation, functional ability, race, age and class can have negative effects that limit an individuals later opportunities. According to H ooyman & Kiyak (2011), these structural factorsoften institutionalized and rein chock upd by public policylimit the opportunities and choices of later life, resulting in cumulative disadvantages in old age, which are further exacerbated by retirement (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 323).These differences force aging individuals to change themselves and their lifestyles to fit income, health and physical care policy constraints forcedon them. Increased reduction in public health and social services creates a barrier for individuals to affectively age and receive proper(ip) care. Postmodernist theory follows the same framework of individual aging. It develops with the individual to befitting their needs on a personal level and takes into consideration what the body and mind have both gone through as they have aged. According to Powell (2011), older people are usually fixed to roles without resources which does not do justice to the richness of their individual experiences and multi-fac ets of their personalities (Powell, 2001, p. 6). Postmodernism clearly focuses on the importance of an individuals ability to develop overtime through experience and uses biomedicine to provide options for maintaining an individuals physical body. This provides a solid framework for aging that meets the needs of an individual from both physical and mental capacities. endpointWhile these are the dominant theories, many other theories are in varying stages of development. In addition, theories are constantly being tested and modified as new data from aging research emerges. It is only in the last half-century that researchers have begun to focus their attention on older adults as a population worthy of special consideration. While earlier theories of aging were few in number, narrowly focused, and generally negative, recent theories have emerged that establish aging as a multidimensional process. These theories view aging as characterized by positive as well as negative qualities and are more interactive in nature. They emphasize the interaction of biological, physical, and social factors in each individuals age trajectory, and attempt to explain how older adults can minimize the negative and maximize the positive aspects of aging, in graze to more fully enjoy the increased life span that comes with aliment in the 21st century.ReferencesAndrus Gerontology Center University of Southern California. (2005). The Psychology of senescent Lecture Part II. Retrieved from http//gero.usc.edu/AgeWorks/core_courses/gero500_core/psychology_lect/index_a.htm Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, H. A. (2011). Social Gerontology, ninth edition. Boston Allyn and Bacon. Howe, C. Z. (1987). Selected Social Gerontology Theories and Older Adult Leisure Involvement A Review of the